Because Queen Victoria’s invitation to William Ewart Gladstone to form his first administration in 1868 followed a period of Fenian violence, his response to this was ‘My mission is to […]

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There are a number of ironies for Ireland in this whole story, including: 1. The impact of refrigeration The foundation of the Land League and the arrival of the first […]

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Between December 1980 and April 1981, western powers had good reason to fear that the Soviet Union was about to intervene in Poland, either in the form of a unilateral […]

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On 4 December 1980 a secret message was conveyed to the CIA by Colonel Ryszard Kukliński, a high-level informant within the Polish general staff, to the effect that fifteen divisions […]

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The massive industrial unrest in Poland in August 1980, centred on the famous strike in the Gdańsk shipyard, had led to the creation of Solidarność, the first independent trade union […]

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